ASSIGNMENT 3 IS DUE WEDNESDAY OCTOBER 23 BY CLASS. NO LATE PAPERS. THANK YOU.

EDF 5481 READINGS AND ASSIGNMENTS

OVERVIEW

 

These examples are from real graduate students at Florida State University who elected earlier semesters of Methods of Educational Research. They represent several topics, but notice that all clearly address the requirements for revised the research problem statement to include operational variables, and operational and null hypotheses. All these examples were A or A- papers. While it was not possible to give an example from all the majors in this class (as you know, there are over a dozen major areas represented), there are examples from Instructional Design, Sports Psychology, Elementary Education,and Art Education.

Each example does reference citations, but, you will notice, VERY FEW citations, because the purpose is to lay out a research problem statement, not to do a literature review. Thus, citations are only germane to establish "facts in the research literature" and a scholarship tradition. (Each student here presented the full reference for each citation in an appendix.)  American Psychological Assocation (APA) style is not necessary, although APA style is particularly useful for citation style.

The research problem is at the stage where the investigator is prepared to design a study. Although specifics are not given (such as the exact questions used in a survey), the investigator has thoughtfully chosen a design that is appropriate to their research problem and has given a justification for why this design "works." Thought is also given to the choice of population, the sample to select from it and how the sample is chosen. In some cases, the investigator can go directly to a relatively complete list or frame, whereas in other cases, multistage sampling is necessary.

    Recently, the Korean Air Force(KAF) adopted Web-Based Training(WBT) as a new training method to enhance its economical efficiency of training. The KAF invests a considerable budget in constructing the computer technology infrastructure. The budget is mainly spent on accelerating network accessing speed(change or lay fiberglass cable) and upgrading personal computers (HQ KAF, 2000). This investment is becoming more expensive each year. It is believed that a better hardware environment in most web-based learning settings will produce better training outcomes (HQ USAF, 1996). However, because building and maintaining the WBT environment requires tremendous expense, research on cost-effectiveness is highly needed.

The purpose of this research is to analyze the effects of the hardware environment on the training results in a WBT situation.

The research problems of this study are as follows:

1) To what extent does the computer hardware environment affect the Air Force trainees’ performance test scores?
2) To what extent does the computer hardware environment affect the trainees’ time spent on learning?

The key conceptual dependent variables of this study are as follows:

1) The trainees’ achievement at the end of course.
2) The Trainees’ time efficiency.

The key conceptual independent variables of this study are as follows:

1. The network accessing speed.
2. The types of P.Cs.

The conceptual hypotheses of this study are as follows:

1. The more advanced hardware environment will positively affect the trainees’ achievement.
2. The more advanced hardware environment will positively affect the time efficiency of the training.

The key operational dependent variables of this study are as follows:.

1. The trainees’ summative test scores at the end of the course.
2. The time spent on mastery learning (95% of the trainees get over 80% of the maximum score).

The key operational independent variables of this study are as follows:

1. The network accessing speed of the Base Learning Centers to the Defense Information and Communication Network(T3, T1, or 56k).
2. The types of P.Cs at the Base Learning Centers(Pentium III, Pentium II, or lower).

The operational hypotheses of this study are as follows:

1. The higher network accessing speed will positively affect the trainees’ time spent on mastery learning.
2. The higher network accessing speed will positively affect the trainees’ test scores.
3. The Pentium III P.Cs will positively affect the trainees’ time spent on mastery learning.
4. The Pentium III P.Cs will positively affect the trainees’ test scores.

STUDY DESIGN:

Because we have interest in intervention, this topic lends itself quite naturally to an experiment. This will be a POSTTEST ONLY design because of time and logistical considerations. Using a random number table, subjects will be randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups:

1. Pentium III PC and lower network speed
2. Pentium I PC and lower network speed
3. Pentium III PC and higher network speed
4. Pentium I PC and higher network speed

The time spent on mastery learning (in hours) and summative test scores will be the dependent variables.

Because we have no pretest, we cannot see improvement and this affects the internal validity. We did not want to risk pretest-treatment interactions and could not afford eight groups at this time, so we chose a posttest only design. There may be selective mortality of trainees from the lower network speed and/or the slower machines due to frustration. Even if we replace them, the self-selective issues in experimental mortality are a threat to internal validity.

SAMPLING:

The population is new trainees in the Korean Air Force, who are less than three months in the service. A systematic sample with a random start will be used to select the trainees for the participant pool. Trainees will first be arranged in numeric order by their serial number. A random number from 1 to 10 will be picked, then every 10th trainee will be selected. Because this kind of sample can approximate a simple random sample, this study should have good external validity to generalize to new trainees.

What works on new trainees might not for recruits who have been longer in the service. We are not so concerned because we want to concentrate on new trainees. Also, not all software will run on the slower, older machines, particularly the new software. It may be that our results will only hold for the older software programs.
 

    This study will establish the optimal level of concentration among soccer players when faced with a goal scoring opportunity.  Concentration, or the ability to focus one’s attention on the task at hand, has been found to differentiate between expert and novice athletes (Moran, 1996; Nideffer, 1993b; Orlick, 1990).  Inexperienced (novice) athletes tend to differ from experienced athletes in their attentional focus, direction, and flexibility (Summers & Ford, 1995).

    A soccer player who adopts a narrow attentional focus, more often misses relevant cues and thus important goal scoring opportunities.  A player who directs his or her attention to internal (versus external) sensations (e.g., hurt ankle, “butterflies in the stomach”) while shooting on goal, will likely miss the goal altogether or shoot directly at the goalkeeper.  A third problem may arise when a player receives a ball and cannot switch attention from one target (the ball) to another (the goal and position of the goalkeeper). In this instance, the player is likely to get “caught in possession”, or robbed of the ball by an opposing player.  Thus, it seems as if the ability to concentrate effectively is an important mental aspect in successful performance.

    One would also expect that concentration will be related to self-efficicacy, which, in turn, should predict performance. Those with moderate concentration levels will be expected to feel more self-efficacious.

    It is hoped that with this study, numerous soccer players will benefit from the results and be able to achieve that next, formerly unattainable, level.  It is further hoped that this study will enable coaches and sport psychologists to use this learned knowledge to help soccer players achieve this goal.

Conceptual Dependent Variables

1.  Performance -- “The observable attempt of an individual to produce a voluntary action” (score a goal in soccer, act in a Broadway play, shoot a free throw in basketball) (Shea, Fall 2000).

2.  Self-efficacy -- one’s belief about his or her ability to perform a certain task.

Conceptual Independent Variable

1.  Concentration -- the ability “to focus one’s attention on the task at hand and thereby not be disturbed or affected by irrelevant external and internal stimuli” (Schmid & Peper, 1993).

Conceptual Hypotheses

1.  The level of concentration for soccer players faced with goal scoring opportunities has a curvilinear relationship with performance, with the highest performance occurring at medium levels of concentration. This is a direct application of the effects of arousal on performance derived from several learning theories.

2. Concentration among soccer players in front of the goal has a direct, positive impact on one’s self-efficacy.

Operational Dependent Variables

1.  Performance -- measured by the number of goals a soccer player successfully scores on a given task (higher the score, the better the performance).

2.  Self - efficacy -- measured by a person’s score on the Physical Self-Efficacy Scale (PSE) developed by Ryckman, Robbins, Thornton, & Cantrell (1982).

Operational Independent Variable

1.  Concentration -- a subject’s score on the soccer version of the Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (S-TAIS) developed by Robert Nideffer (1976).

Operational Hypotheses

1.  A soccer player’s score on the S-TAIS will have a curvilinear relationship with the number of goals he or she scores on a given task.

2.  Higher scores on the S-TAIS will predict a higher score on the PSE.

Type of Study Design

The purpose of the present study is to determine the optimal level of concentration among soccer players when faced with a goal scoring opportunity.  In order to obtain the optimal level of concentration, we must learn what soccer players think and feel in front of the goal.  The best way to assess one’s thoughts and emotions is to give them a questionnaire.  Therefore, each player will receive a soccer version of Nideffer’s Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (S-TAIS) to assess his or her level of concentration as it relates to performance.  Thus, the current study will be a survey research design because we are trying to capture each player’s thoughts and feelings.

As a result, reactivity (more specifically social desirability) could be a serious threat to internal validity.  Players (subjects) may try to fake good and answer questions in the most desirable manner, rather than what they truly think and feel.  Furthermore, the S-TAIS, to my knowledge, has never actually been tested (hence, an additional purpose of my research).  Consequently, reliability and construct validity could also pose serious threats to internal validity.

Site and Population/Sample

This study will be directed towards soccer players (both male and female) at the elite, sub-elite, and recreational levels to obtain the true optimal level of concentration in front of the goal, regardless of experience.  Due to numerous limitations (money, time, feasibility), my population will have to be limited to Tallahassee area soccer players.  Team rosters will be obtained from Florida State University Women’s Soccer team and Florida State University Men’s Club soccer team (elite), local area high school soccer teams (sub-elite), and Tallahassee Soccer Association (recreational).  The rosters will be combined into one list and using a random number table, 200 soccer players will be randomly chosen to complete the two questionnaires.  This is an example of simple random sampling, which is a probability sample type, because each player has an equal probability that he or she will be chosen.

Using Tallahassee area soccer players as my population rather than just FSU women’s soccer team will increase external validity for I will be able to generalize to all levels of experience rather than just elite, or NCAA Division I soccer players (in Tallahassee).  There are limitations however in survey research, the most serious is that of a low response rate.  In this study I do not foresee this as a serious problem, for the questionnaires directly pertain to soccer and hence should produce a higher response rate among soccer players.  Furthermore, I personally will administer each questionnaire, which will be short in nature, to assure a higher response rate.

(Note: Personally, I am not a big proponent of studies which correlate one "test" with other "tests." However, note how clearly the student states exactly what she wants to examine. This example is a very good one of such a study. SCL)

What do you see as a problem when the investigator acts as her own interviewer for all of the surveys?
 

    This research will examine gender and styles of aggression in 3-5 year-old-children. It is important to study gender and aggression as statistics reveal that the death rate of males to females in the age group 15-19 years is: 2.5:1 (U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of the Census, 1996). Young male aggression is much more deadly and self-destructive than female aggression.  Therefore, we need to know much more about sex differences among young children in order to understand when and how these behavioral patterns are established and reinforced.

    Until recently, it has been believed that males are more aggressive than females, and that aggression is predominantly a male phenomenon (Macoby & Jacklin, 1974).  Past research has assessed overt aggression, which is more salient for boys than for girls. In recent research, aggression has been regarded as behavior that is intended to injure someone either physically or psychologically (Berkowitz, 1993 cited in Salmivalli, et al., 2000). Recent research indicated that a type of aggression has been shown to be more characteristic of girls, such as shunning behavior (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995, Lagerspetz, Björkqvist, & Peltonen, 1988). While Björkqvist called this type of aggression as indirect aggression, Crick called it as relational aggression.

    Kaukiainen et. al (1999) defined indirect aggression as “noxious behavior in which the target person is attacked not physically or directly through verbal intimidation but in a circuitous way, through social manipulation” (Kaukiainen, et. al, 1999, p. 83) such as character defamation (lies, gossip), betrayal of trust (revealing a peer’s secrets to others), social exclusion by the aggressor, or influencing others to exclude the victim. Crick and Casas (1997) defined direct aggression as giving harm to others through physical damage or the threat of such damage, such as pushing, hitting, kicking, or threatening to beat up a peer.

    Studies on aggression indicated that gender differences exist in styles of aggressive behaviors beginning with early ages. Girls tend to use more indirect forms of aggression, whereas boys perpetrate more direct aggressive behaviors. However, findings differ for young children, at age 8 and younger. The research on gender differences in indirect aggression presents mixed results, whether one examines children or adults. For example, while Green et al. (1996) did not find such differences among college-age adults, Hines et al. (1994) did find sex differences among adults.

According to Bandura aggressive behavior is learned and maintained through environmental experiences by reinforcements and punishments (Huesmann, L, R, 1994).

Conceptual Independent Variable: Gender

Conceptual Dependent Variable:  Types of Aggression

1. Direct Aggression:  (a) Physical Aggression; (b)Verbal Aggression
2. Indirect Aggression

Conceptual Hypotheses for preschool children:

1. Girls use slightly more indirect aggression than boys.
2. There are not gender differencea in the use of verbal aggression.
3. Boys are slightly more physically aggressive than girls.

Operational Independent Variable: Child's biological sex, male or female.

Operational Dependent Variable:

Preschool Aggressive Behavior Scale (peer form) developed by the researcher will be used to assess the types of the aggression children use.

Operational Hypotheses:

1. Girls will have higher scores on indirect aggression on peer assessment of Preschool Aggressive Behavior Scale.
2. Boys will have higher scores on physical aggression on peer assessment of Preschool Aggressive Behavior Scale.

TYPE OF STUDY DESIGN

A survey research design will be used in this study. This is a correlational study. The relationship between styles of aggression and gender will be assessed, and this can be only done in natural settings. The researcher cannot manipulate variables.* The research will be conducted in a naturally occuring cluster: a classroom. A peer assessment measure, which assesses peer reports of children’s use of indirect aggression, physical aggression, and verbal aggression, will be constructed and pilot tested. By the end of the Fall 2001 semester, the measure will be administered to the children in 20-min interview by a trained interviewer. Pictures of children will be used as a visual aid. In-person interview is the most appropriate administration technique for young children, because they are not literate. The beliefs of interviewer about the research problem can affect the results of the study. The second possible threat to internal validity is that 20-minute interview is long for young children. If the interviewer cannot make a good communication with the children, the children might get bored and answer the questions incorrectly.

SITE AND POPULATION/SAMPLE

A probability sample of three preschool classrooms in Florida will take part in this study. The population of this study is preschool children in the state of Florida. In order to take a sample, a list of all school districts in Florida State will be obtained. Then three districts through a systematic sampling procedure will be sampled. A list of all preschools in these three districts will be obtained, and one preschool from each district will be sampled by using a systematic sampling procedure. Finally, one classroom from each preschool will be sampled. Cluster sampling is the most appropriate sampling to study gender differences in styles of aggression at young children through a peer assessment measure.

Although probability sample will be used in this study, the small size of the sample can be a threat to external validity. Due to the economic limitations, only three classrooms will be taken as a sample. The results of three classroom may not be generalized to all Florida State preschool classrooms. Further, with such a small sample, there may be little variation in variables such as social class, which will also restrict external validity.

*Could aggression be manipulated in this study? Well, maybe. First, in the time honored tradition of Bandura and Walters, we could manipulate what type of media children are exposed to. Second, propensity to aggress has been studied for decades through lab experiments that assess the willingness of individuals to shock others with electric shock (Milgram's study is only one of a long line that measures shock duration and intensity. In all cases, the confederate is NOT really shocked.) I don't know how well this experimental paradigm will work with small children, however. First, because the decisions may be too complicated, second, because to many young children, shocking another child simply may not seem "real." Third, of course, are human subjects provisions, which are especially restrictive for children.
 
 

    This study will investigate the use of alternative mass media as opposed to mainstream mass media to teach art for students in different grades in elementary schools; in particular, this study concentrates on film. Mainstream mass media is the media professionally produced primarily in the U.S. by mainly high status Caucasian males; it often frequently portrays people of color as inferior and savage. Alternative mass media differs from mainstream mass media; it is more culturally diverse, perhaps because it is typically produced by non-Westerners—mostly the non-Americans in this study— and spontaneously by amateur media makers (Maeda, 2000). I define cultural sensitivity as one’s positive or negative reactions to other person’s morals, values, beliefs, performances, appearances or behaviors, especially when they are perceived to be different than one’s own (Plata and Robertson, 1998). Others are those people whose cultures are different from the dominant culture in which our research subjects (students) are located (Maeda, 2000).

    A final goal of this research is to enhance the cultural sensitivity of students.  Among other effects, it is expected that exposure to more culturally diverse media will raise student creativity. This study provides art educators with a possible approach to integrate multicultural education, media education and art education.  This study also gives elementary school students a chance to advance their understanding of other cultures as well as their own culture.

    Mass media shapes children’s everyday aesthetic experiences in terms of their perceptions of other cultures.  Children of different ages perceive and interpret information from mass media in dissimilar ways (Cebrián de la Serena, 1995).  School-aged children exposed to mainstream mass media will lose their cultural sensitivity (Maeda, 2000).  Maeda (2000) finds that alternative mass media changes Japanese middle school students’ perceptions about same aged African pupils significantly (p. 98).  Based on this premise, it is critical for art educators to understand the influences of alternative mass media in enhancing children’s cultural sensitivities in contradiction to what they perceive from those mainstream mass media.

The major questions for this study are:

(1) Do alternative mass media, as compared with mainstream mass media, enhance the cultural sensitivity of elementary school children?
(2) How do art teachers examine the enhancements of children’s cultural sensitivities from students’ art expression?
(3) What kinds of differences exist across students in different grades?

Conceptual variables
Independent variables

(1) Types of mass media (note change to a singular variable here!)
(2) Grade levels of students.

Dependent variables

Cultural sensitivity

Conceptual Hypotheses

(1) After exposure to alternative mass media in contrast to mainstream mass media, elementary school-aged students will change their perceptions in a more positive direction toward other cultures.
(2) After exposure to alternative mass media in contrast to mainstream mass media, elementary school-aged students will experience more diversity.
(3) After exposure to alternative mass media in contrast with mainstream mass media, elementary school-aged students will change their perceptions according to grade level.
 

Operational variables
Independent variables

(1) Alternative mass media: It is the art educational videotape produced by non-Western amateur filmmakers for teaching aesthetic traditions based on their cultures  (all videotapes are dubbed and captioned in English).
(2) Mainstream mass media: It is the art educational videotapes produced by American Caucasian filmmakers for teaching the aesthetic traditions of the same cultures (all videotapes are dubbed and captioned in English, if necessary).
(3) Students from 1st grade to 6th grade will be studied.

Dependent variables

(1) Student’s cultural sensitivity will be examined by their pictorial illustrations before and after watching the test videotapes.
(2) Student’s cultural sensitivity will be examined by their written descriptions before and after watching the test videotapes.
(3) Student’s cultural sensitivity will be examined by their answers to questionnaires before and after watching the test videotapes.

Operational Hypotheses

(1) Pictorial illustrations, written descriptions and answers to the questionnaires will be significantly changed in a positive direction toward other cultures after viewing the alternative videotapes in comparison with those changes after viewing the mainstream videotapes.
(2) The changes of pictorial illustrations, written descriptions and answers to the questionnaires will be  dissimilar between the students in different grade levels after viewing the test videotapes.

(NOTE: I would have preferred each of the operational hypotheses to have been broken into three separate hypotheses, one each for pictorial illustrations, written descriptions, and questionnaire responses. SCL)

Study Design

This study is designed to examine the effect of alternative mass media, in contrast to mainstream mass media, on enhancing the cultural sensitivity of different grade levels of elementary school students.  In order to compare the changes of students’ cultural sensitivity (which in this study is measured by students’ pictorial illustrations, writing descriptions and answers to questionnaires), a pretest-posttest experimental design is the most proper study design since this study contrasts two different types of interventions: the alternative mass media versus the mainstream mass media.  Also, experimental effects among various grade levels of students will be analyzed.

All of participants will use the same questionnaire in this study because the same questionnaire is an appropriate method for analyzing the outcome. On the other hand, using the same questionnaire for distinct grade levels of students may cause threats to internal validity due to children’s maturation effects.  Further, socioeconomic status and ethnic identities of different school districts may influence the causal inferences since they may introduce some bias into the of children’s previous perspectives of other cultures (i.e., children from limited mass media broadcasted community versus those with abundant resources of mass media.)  These issues may raise problems for internal validity.

Site and Population/Sample

This study will employ seventeen Florida county school districts which are the participating districts of the Florida Institute for Art Education, and the Florida State University School system at the FSU main campus in Tallahassee, FL.  Schools at the seventeen districts that do not offer art programs to all grade levels will not be included in this study.

The lists of schools from each district will be rearranged randomly and become a new list of schools for sampling.  This study uses, at the beginning, simple random sampling method to assign schools for creating the research pool.  Then, all studied subjects (students) will be randomly assigned into two intervention groups.  The studied subjects are students from 2nd grade to 6th grade.  All participants in the study will obtain permissions from their parents and their parents will be required to sign a consent from approved by the Florida State university Committee on Human Subjects for granting the right to use video images and auditory transcription for the study.

The results of this study probably cannot generalize to all American elementary schools, but it can be applied to the elementary schools in Florida county school system.  The higher external validity for this study to be able to be applied nationwide may be achieved in the future by the cooperation of the other four regional institutes for art education, which are located in California, Texas, Nebraska, and North Carolina.
 
 

EDF 5481 READINGS AND ASSIGNMENTS

OVERVIEW

Susan Carol Losh October 12 2002
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